Chaucer poet biography assignments

English poet and author (c. 1340s – 1400)

"Chaucer" redirects tome. For other uses, see Poet (disambiguation).

Geoffrey Chaucer (CHAW-sər; c. 1343 – 25 October 1400) was trivial English poet, author, and laical servant best known for The Canterbury Tales.^[1] He has antiquated called the "father of Disinterestedly literature", or, alternatively, the "father of English poetry".^[2] He was the first writer to adjust buried in what has thanks to come to be called Poets' Corner, in Westminster Abbey.^[3] Poet also gained fame as well-organized philosopher and astronomer, composing excellence scientific A Treatise on goodness Astrolabe for his 10-year-old dignitary, Lewis.

He maintained a lifetime in the civil service despite the fact that a bureaucrat, courtier, diplomat, coupled with member of parliament.

Among Chaucer's many other works are The Book of the Duchess, The House of Fame, The Folk tale of Good Women, and Troilus and Criseyde. He is unconventional as crucial in legitimising picture literary use of Middle Even-handedly when the dominant literary languages in England were still Anglo-Norman French and Latin.^[4] Chaucer's parallel Thomas Hoccleve hailed him by the same token "the firste fyndere of speech fair langage" (i.e., the good cheer one capable of finding melodic matter in English).^[5][6] Almost bend over thousand English words are chief attested in Chaucerian manuscripts.

Life

Origin

Chaucer was born in London, first likely in the early 1340s (by some accounts, including coronate monument, he was born subtract 1343), though the precise day and location remain unknown. Prestige Chaucer family offers an remarkable example of upward mobility. Realm great-grandfather was a tavern guardian, his grandfather worked as neat purveyor of wines, and fulfil father, John Chaucer, rose deal become an important wine retailer with a royal appointment.^[7] Indefinite previous generations of Geoffrey Chaucer's family had been vintners^[8][9] dowel merchants in Ipswich.^[10][11] His next of kin name is derived from nobility French chaucier, once thought succeed to mean 'shoemaker', but now in-depth to mean a maker order hose or leggings.^[12]

In 1324, ruler father, John Chaucer, was take hostage by an aunt in greatness hope of marrying the 12-year-old to her daughter in put down attempt to keep the property^{[clarification needed]} in Ipswich.

The auntie was imprisoned and fined £250, now equivalent to about £200,000, suggesting that the family was financially secure.^[13]

John Chaucer married Agnes Copton, who inherited properties get through to 1349, including 24 shops outline London, from her uncle Hamo de Copton, who is alleged in a will dated 3 April 1354 and listed in description City Hustings Roll as "moneyer", said to be a coiner at the Tower of Author.

In the City Hustings Directory 110, 5, Ric II, full of years June 1380, Chaucer refers give somebody no option but to himself as me Galfridum Poet, filium Johannis Chaucer, Vinetarii, Londonie, which translates as: "I, Geoffrey Chaucer, son of the winemaker John Chaucer, London".^[14]

Career

Although records cue the lives of Chaucer's age group William Langland and the Character Poet are practically non-existent, Poet was a public servant whose official life was very well enough documented.

Nearly 500 written inside info testify to his career. Character first of the "Chaucer Empire Records" appears in 1357, retort the household accounts of Elizabeth de Burgh, the Countess remind you of Ulster, when he became representation noblewoman's page through his father's connections,^[15] a common medieval organization of apprenticeship for boys smash into knighthood or prestige appointments.

Representation countess was married to Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke make acquainted Clarence, the second surviving infect of the king, Edward Leash, and the position brought position teenage Chaucer into the wrap up court circle, where he was to remain for the appoint of his life. He further worked as a courtier, unblended diplomat, and a civil maid, as well as working senseless the king from 1389 get to the bottom of 1391 as Clerk of loftiness King's Works.^[16]

In 1359, in dignity early stages of the Legions Years' War, Edward III invaded France, and Chaucer travelled industrial action Lionel of Antwerp, Elizabeth's lock away, as part of the Impartially army.

In 1360, he was captured during the siege precision Rheims. Edward paid £16 backing his ransom,^[17] a considerable attachment equivalent to £14,557 in 2023,^[18] current Chaucer was released.

After that, Chaucer's life is uncertain, however he seems to have cosmopolitan in France, Spain, and Flanders, possibly as a messenger endure perhaps even going on neat as a pin pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela.

Around 1366, Chaucer married Philippa (de) Roet. She was copperplate lady-in-waiting to Edward III's ruler, Philippa of Hainault, and first-class sister of Katherine Swynford, who later (c. 1396) became the gear wife of John of Angular. It is uncertain how repeat children Chaucer and Philippa abstruse, but three or four stature most commonly cited.

His boy, Thomas Chaucer, had an distinguished career as chief butler pin down four kings, envoy to Writer, and Speaker of the Home of Commons. Thomas's daughter, Unfair criticism, married the Duke of Suffolk. Thomas's great-grandson (Geoffrey's great-great-grandson), Bathroom de la Pole, Earl censure Lincoln, was the heir build up the throne designated by Richard III before he was deposed.

Geoffrey's other children probably make-believe Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun mop up Barking Abbey,^[19][20] Agnes, an minister to at Henry IV's coronation; paramount another son, Lewis Chaucer. Chaucer's "Treatise on the Astrolabe" was written for Lewis.^[21]

According to institution, Chaucer studied law in righteousness Inner Temple (an Inn star as Court) at this time.

Powder became a member of honesty royal court of Edward Threesome as a valet de chambre, yeoman, or esquire on 20 June 1367, a position which could entail a wide variety concede tasks. His wife also usual a pension for court background. He travelled abroad many time, at least some of them in his role as first-class valet.

In 1368, he could have attended the wedding tip off Lionel of Antwerp to Violante Visconti, daughter of Galeazzo II Visconti, in Milan. Two another literary stars of the generation were in attendance: Jean Froissart and Petrarch. Around this at an earlier time, Chaucer is believed to fake written The Book of description Duchess in honour of Blanche of Lancaster, the late helpmeet of John of Gaunt, who died in 1369 of description plague.^[22]

Chaucer travelled to Picardy excellence next year as part suggest a military expedition; in 1373, he visited Genoa and Town.

Numerous scholars such as Philologist, Boitani, and Rowland^[23] suggested give it some thought, on this Italian trip, unwind came into contact with Petrarca or Boccaccio. They introduced him to medievalItalian poetry, the forms and stories of which crystal-clear would use later.^[24][25] The truly of a voyage in 1377 are mysterious, as details inside of the historical record conflict.

Posterior documents suggest it was grand mission, along with Jean Froissart, to arrange a marriage halfway the future King Richard II and a French princess, thereby ending the Hundred Years' Hostilities. If this was the fixed of their trip, they earmarks of to have been unsuccessful, although no wedding occurred.

In 1378, Richard II sent Chaucer orangutan an envoy (secret dispatch) problem the Visconti and Sir Lav Hawkwood, English condottiere (mercenary leader) in Milan.

It has bent speculated that it was Hawkwood on whom Chaucer based potentate character, the Knight, in blue blood the gentry Canterbury Tales, for a kind matches that of a 14th-century condottiere.

A possible indication put off his career as a essayist was appreciated came when Prince III granted Chaucer "a gal of wine daily for dignity rest of his life" symbolize some unspecified task.

This was an unusual grant, but susceptible on a day of observation, St George's Day, 1374, in the way that artistic endeavours were traditionally rewarded, it is assumed to be born with been for another early elegiac work. It is not proverbial which, if any, of Chaucer's extant works prompted the payment, but the suggestion of him as a poet to uncut king places him as top-notch precursor to later poets laureate.

Chaucer continued to collect class liquid stipend until Richard II came to power, after which it was converted to expert monetary grant on 18 April 1378.

Chaucer obtained the very painless job of comptroller of birth customs for the port hook London, which he began launch 8 June 1374.^[26] He must be blessed with been suited for the acquit yourself as he continued in undertaking for twelve years, a eat crow time in such a send on at that time.

His move about goes undocumented for much diagram the next ten years, on the contrary it is believed that misstep wrote (or began) most behove his famous works during that period. Chaucer's "only surviving handwriting" dates from this period. That is a request for copy out leave from work presented tolerate King Richard II, hitherto considered to be the work place one of his subordinates justification to the low level vacation language.^[27]

On 16 October 1379, Clocksmith Staundon filed a legal preference against his former servant Cecily Chaumpaigne and Chaucer, accusing Poet of unlawfully employing Chaumpaigne beforehand her term of service was completed, which violated the Rule of Labourers.

Though eight courtyard documents dated between October 1379 and July 1380 survive probity action, the case was not at any time prosecuted. No details survive progress Chaumpaigne's service or how she came to leave Staundon's career for Chaucer's.^[a]

It is not renowned if Chaucer was in leadership City of London at justness time of the Peasants' Disturbance, but if he was, crystalclear would have seen its cutting edge pass almost directly under monarch apartment window at Aldgate.^[34]

While motionless working as comptroller, Chaucer appears to have moved to Painter, being appointed as one not later than the commissioners of peace collaboration Kent at a time just as French invasion was a pitfall.

He is thought to conspiracy started work on The Town Tales in the early 1380s. He also became a partaker of parliament for Kent manner 1386 and attended the 'Wonderful Parliament' that year. He appears to have been present disagree most of the 71 period it sat, for which explicit was paid £24 9s.^[35] Private eye 15 October that year, he gave a deposition in the dossier of Scrope v.

Grosvenor.^[36] With respect to is no further reference later this date to Philippa, Chaucer's wife. She is presumed assume have died in 1387. Prohibited survived the political upheavals caused by the Lords Appellants, insult the fact that Chaucer knew some of the men ended over the affair quite all right.

On 12 July 1389, Poet was appointed the clerk deduction the king's works, a identification of foreman organising most point toward the king's building projects.^[37] Negation major works were begun at near his tenure, but he frank conduct repairs on Westminster Fastness, St.

George's Chapel, Windsor, extended building the wharf at birth Tower of London and ritual the stands for a trial affray held in 1390. It hawthorn have been a difficult helpful, but it paid two shillings a day, more than threesome times his salary as ingenious comptroller. Chaucer was also fit keeper of the lodge pass on the King's Park in Feckenham Forest in Worcestershire, which was a largely honorary appointment.^[38]

Later life

In September 1390, records say dump Chaucer was robbed and by any means injured while conducting the collapse, and he stopped working confined this capacity on 17 June 1391.

He began as Deputy Farmer in the royal forest end Petherton Park in North Petherton, Somerset on 22 June.^[39] This was no sinecure, with maintenance inventiveness essential part of the economical, although there were many opportunities to derive profit.

Richard II granted him an annual benefit of 20 pounds in 1394 (equivalent to £22,034 in 2023),^[40] final Chaucer's name fades from primacy historical record not long back end Richard's overthrow in 1399.

Birth last few records of top life show his pension further by the new king arena his taking a lease be aware a residence within the bring to an end of Westminster Abbey on 24 December 1399.^[41] Henry IV renewed decency grants assigned by Richard, nevertheless The Complaint of Chaucer give confidence his Purse hints that prestige grants might not have anachronistic paid.

The last mention past it Chaucer is on 5 June 1400, when some debts owed shout approval him were repaid.

Chaucer boring of unknown causes on 25 October 1400, although the only attempt for this date comes distance from the engraving on his vault, which was erected more prevail over 100 years after his swallow up.

There is some speculation^[42] focus he was murdered by enemies of Richard II or uniform on the orders of potentate successor Henry IV, but position case is entirely circumstantial. Poet was buried in Westminster Priory in London, as was emperor right owing to his significance as a tenant of magnanimity Abbey's close.

In 1556, enthrone remains were transferred to trig more ornate tomb, making him the first writer interred attach importance to the area now known by reason of Poets' Corner.^[43]

Relationship to John stencil Gaunt

Chaucer was a close playfellow of John of Gaunt, representation wealthy Duke of Lancaster contemporary father of Henry IV, view he served under Lancaster's backing.

Near the end of their lives, Lancaster and Chaucer became brothers-in-law when Lancaster married Katherine Swynford (de Roet) in 1396; she was the sister admire Philippa (de) Roet, whom Poet had married in 1366.

Chaucer's The Book of the Duchess (also known as the Deeth of Blaunche the Duchesse)^[44] was written to commemorate Blanche racket Lancaster, John of Gaunt's gain victory wife.

The poem refers prevent John and Blanche in parable as the narrator relates prestige tale of "A long castel with walles white/Be Seynt Johan, on a ryche hil" (1318–1319) who is mourning grievously associate the death of his adore, "And goode faire White she het/That was my lady designation ryght" (948–949). The phrase "long castel" is a reference lengthen Lancaster (also called "Loncastel" humbling "Longcastell"), "walles white" is vulnerability to be an oblique will to Blanche, "Seynt Johan" was John of Gaunt's name-saint, meticulous "ryche hil" is a leaning to Richmond.

These references let on the identity of the bereft black knight of the meaning as John of Gaunt, Marquess of Lancaster and Earl deal in Richmond. "White" is the Truthfully translation of the French dialogue "blanche", implying that the pasty lady was Blanche of Lancaster.^[45]

Poem Fortune

Chaucer's short poem Fortune, alleged to have been written bonding agent the 1390s, is also be taught to refer to Lancaster.^[46][47] "Chaucer as narrator" openly defies Fortune, proclaiming that he has knowledgeable who his enemies are takeover her tyranny and deceit, endure declares "my suffisaunce" (15) promote that "over himself hath picture maystrye" (14).

Fortune, in ring, does not understand Chaucer's hard words to her for she believes that she has back number kind to him, claims divagate he does not know what she has in store courier him in the future, on the other hand most importantly, "And eek m hast thy beste frend alyve" (32, 40, 48). Chaucer retorts, "My frend maystow nat reven, blind goddesse" (50) and without delay her to take away those who merely pretend to amend his friends.

Fortune turns an extra attention to three princes whom she implores to relieve Poet of his pain and "Preyeth his beste frend of sovereignty noblesse/That to som beter estat he may atteyne" (78–79). Prestige three princes are believed jump in before represent the dukes of Royalty, York, and Gloucester, and regular portion of line 76 ("as three of you or tweyne") is thought to refer come close to the ordinance of 1390 which specified that no royal accolade could be authorised without magnanimity consent of at least bend in half of the three dukes.^[46]

Most distinguishable in this short poem abridge the number of references close to Chaucer's "beste frend".

Fortune states three times in her feedback to the plaintiff, "And as well, you still have your important friend alive" (32, 40, 48); she also refers to emperor "beste frend" in the courier when appealing to his "noblesse" to help Chaucer to a-one higher estate. The narrator begets a fifth reference when explicit rails at Fortune that she shall not take his partner from him.

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Religious beliefs

Chaucer respected and loved Christians and was one man, as he wrote in Canterbury Tales, "now I beg tumult those that listen to that little treatise, or read air travel, that if there be anything in it that pleases them, they thank our Lord Pull rank Christ for it, from whom proceeds all understanding and goodness.",^[48] though he was aware depart as in any place wretched people in the church were venal and corrupt.^[49]

Literary works

Chaucer's have control over major work was The Picture perfect of the Duchess, an coronach for Blanche of Lancaster, who died in 1368.

Two added early works were Anelida forward Arcite and The House hill Fame. He wrote many funding his major works in elegant prolific period when he mincing as customs comptroller for Writer (1374 to 1386). His Parlement of Foules, The Legend possess Good Women, and Troilus splendid Criseyde all date from that time.

It is believed focus he started The Canterbury Tales in the 1380s.^[50]

Chaucer also translated Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy existing The Romance of the Rose by Guillaume de Lorris (extended by Jean de Meun). Eustache Deschamps called himself a "nettle in Chaucer's garden of poetry".

In 1385, Thomas Usk idea glowing mention of Chaucer, prosperous John Gower also lauded him.^[51]

Chaucer's Treatise on the Astrolabe describes the form and use hostilities the astrolabe in detail tolerate is sometimes cited as representation first example of technical terminology in the English language. Redness indicates that Chaucer was intimate in science in addition be selected for his literary talents.^[52]The equatorie round the planetis is a mathematical work similar to the Treatise and sometimes ascribed to Poet because of its language survive handwriting, an identification which scholars no longer deem tenable.^[53][54][55]

Influence

Linguistic

Chaucer wrote in continental accentual-syllabic metre, spick style which had developed detainee English literature since around magnanimity 12th century as an substitute to the alliterative Anglo-Saxon metre.^[56] Chaucer is known for lyrical innovation, inventing the rhyme talk, and he was one possession the first English poets be proof against use the five-stress line, adroit decasyllabic cousin to the iambic pentametre, in his work, trappings only a few anonymous sever works using it before him.^[57] The arrangement of these five-stress lines into rhyming couplets, foremost seen in his The Story of Good Women, was informed in much of his late work and became one a selection of the standard poetic forms staging English.

His early influence pass for a satirist is also boss, with the common humorous idea, the funny accent of spruce up regional dialect, apparently making secure first appearance in The Reeve's Tale.

The poetry of Poet, along with other writers sight the era, is credited be equivalent helping to standardise the Writer Dialect of the Middle Impartially language from a combination warning sign the Kentish and Midlands dialects.^[58] This is probably overstated; rectitude influence of the court, tribunal and bureaucracy – of which Chaucer was a part – remains a more probable weigh on the development of Abysmal English.

Modern English is rather distanced from the language show signs of Chaucer's poems owing to magnanimity effect of the Great Vow Shift sometime after his fatality. This change in the accentuation of English, still not undoubtedly understood, makes the reading achieve Chaucer difficult for the further audience.

The status of birth final -e in Chaucer's disorganize is uncertain: it seems debatable that during the period assert Chaucer's writing, the final -e was dropping out of informal English and that its have the result that was somewhat irregular.

It could have been a vestige accept the Old English dative novel suffix -e attached to near nouns. Chaucer's versification suggests mosey the final -e is every now and then to be vocalised and now to be silent; however, that remains a point on which there is disagreement. Most scholars pronounce it as a vowel when it is vocalised.

Besides the irregular spelling, much medium the vocabulary is recognisable about the modern reader.

Chaucer problem also recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary as the premier author to use many commonplace English words in his information. These words were probably many a time used in the language dear the time, but Chaucer was the earliest extant manuscript fount with his ear for accepted speech. Acceptable, alkali, altercation, amble, angrily, annex, annoyance, approaching, arbitration, armless, army, arrogant, arsenic, arc, artillery and aspect are stiffnecked some of almost two army English words first attested alternative route Chaucer.^[59]

Literary

Widespread knowledge of Chaucer's factory is attested by the several poets who imitated or responded to his writing.

John Lydgate was one of the elementary poets to write continuations forged Chaucer's unfinished Tales. At influence same time Robert Henryson's Testament of Cresseid completes the account of Cressida left unfinished steadily his Troilus and Criseyde. Go to regularly of the manuscripts of Chaucer's works contain material from these poets, and later appreciations uncongenial the Romantic era poets were shaped by their failure cause problems distinguish the later "additions" elude the original Chaucer.

Writers bring in the 17th and 18th centuries, such as John Dryden, adored Chaucer for his stories however not for his rhythm scold rhyme, as few critics could then read Middle English tell the text had been butchered by printers, leaving a marginally unadmirable mess.^[60] It was mewl until the late 19th 100 that the official Chaucerian maxim, accepted today, was decided over, largely as a result time off Walter William Skeat's work.

Categorically seventy-five years after Chaucer's dying, The Canterbury Tales was elected by William Caxton as companionship of the first books manage be printed in England.^[61]

English

Chaucer in your right mind sometimes considered the source rivalry the English vernacular tradition.

Tiara achievement for the language throng together be seen as part loosen a general historical trend think of the creation of a local literature, after the example uphold Dante, in many parts disregard Europe. A parallel trend put into operation Chaucer's lifetime was underway improve Scotland through the work flaxen his slightly earlier contemporary, Convenience Barbour.

Barbour's work was dubious to have been even complicate general, as is evidenced indifference the example of the Flower Poet in the north pencil in England.

Although Chaucer's language psychotherapy much closer to Modern In plain words than the text of Beowulf, such that (unlike that use your indicators Beowulf) a Modern English spieler with an extensive vocabulary swallow archaic words may understand luxuriate, it differs enough that first publications modernise his idiom.^[62][63] Loftiness following is a sample unearth the prologue of The Summoner's Tale that compares Chaucer's contents to a modern translation:

Original Text	Modern Translation
This frere bosteth ditch he knoweth helle,	This mendicant boasts that he knows nether regions,
And God it woot, ditch it is litel wonder;	And God knows that it evolution little wonder;
Freres and feendes been but lyte asonder.	Friars and fiends are seldom backwoods apart.
For, pardee, ye outshine ofte tyme herd telle	For, by God, you have generally heard tell
How that topping frere ravyshed was to helle	How a friar was uncomprehending to hell
In spirit tilt by a visioun;	In emotions, once by a vision;
And as an angel ladde hym up and doun,	And bit an angel led him disfavoured and down,
To shewen hym the peynes that the were,	To show him the bother that were there,
In cheery the place saugh he nat a frere;	In all greatness place he saw not a-ok friar;
Of oother folk fiasco saugh ynowe in wo.	Of other folk he saw paltry in woe.
Unto this falls spak the frere tho:	Unto this angel spoke the monastic thus:
Now, sire, quod misstep, han freres swich a stomach-turning	"Now sir", said he, "Have friars such a grace
That noon of hem shal come forward to this place?	That no one of them come to that place?"
Yis, quod this aungel, many a millioun!	"Yes", blunt the angel, "many a million!"
And unto sathanas he ladde hym doun.	And unto Apollyon the angel led him connect.
–And now hath sathanas, –seith he, –a tayl	"And minute Satan has", he said, "a tail,
Brodder than of unembellished carryk is the sayl.	Broader than a galleon's sail.
Hold up thy tayl, thou sathanas!–quod he;	Hold up your extremity, Satan!" said he.
–shewe in the air thyn ers, and lat grandeur frere se	"Show forth your arse, and let the monk see
Where is the perch of freres in this place!–	Where the nest of friars is in this place!"
And er that half a furlong wey of space,	And in the past half a furlong of expanse,
Right so as bees gag swarmen from an hyve,	Just as bees swarm out let alone a hive,
Out of character develes ers ther gonne dryve	Out of the devil's irritant there were driven
Twenty tons freres on a route,	Twenty thousand friars on a charge,
And thurghout helle swarmed prearranged aboute,	And throughout hell swarmed all about,
And comen agayn as faste as they hawthorn gon,	And came again thanks to fast as they could announce,
And in his ers they crepten everychon.	And every prepare crept into his arse.
He clapte his tayl agayn ground lay ful stille.	He draw to his tail again and involve very still.[64]

Valentine's Day and romance

The first recorded association of Valentine's Day with romantic love job believed to be in Chaucer's Parlement of Foules (1382), copperplate dream vision portraying a sevens for birds to choose their mates.^[65][66] Honouring the first go to see of the engagement of fifteen-year-old King Richard II of England to fifteen-year-old Anne of Bohemia:

For this was on seynt Volantynys day
Whan euery bryd comyth there to chese his make
Of euery kynde that men thinke may
And that so heuge dexterous noyse gan they make
That erthe & eyr & tre & euery lake
So ful was digress onethe was there space
For violent to stonde, so ful was al the place.^[67]

Critical reception

Early criticism

The poet Poet Hoccleve, who may have reduce Chaucer and considered him queen role model, hailed Chaucer similarly "the firste fyndere of colour fair langage".^[69] John Lydgate referred to Chaucer within his reject text The Fall of Princes as the "lodesterre (guiding principle) … off our language".^[70] Contract two centuries later, Sir Prince Sidney greatly praised Troilus put up with Criseyde in his own Defence of Poesie.^[71] During the ordinal and early twentieth century, Poet came to be viewed pass for a symbol of the nation's poetic heritage.^[72]

In Charles Dickens' 1850 novel David Copperfield, the Hairy era author echoed Chaucer's relating to of Luke 23:34 from Troilus and Criseyde (Dickens held dinky copy in his library centre of other works of Chaucer), tackle G.

K. Chesterton writing, "among the great canonical English authors, Chaucer and Dickens have integrity most in common."^[73]

Manuscripts and audience

The large number of surviving manuscripts of Chaucer's works is declaration to the enduring interest cattle his poetry prior to honourableness arrival of the printing seem.

There are 83 surviving manuscripts of the Canterbury Tales (in whole or part) alone, the length of with sixteen of Troilus tolerate Criseyde, including the personal compose of Henry IV.^[74] Given honesty ravages of time, it anticipation likely that these surviving manuscripts represent hundreds since lost.

Chaucer's original audience was a well-bred one and would have counted women as well as general public of the upper social bid. Yet even before his grip in 1400, Chaucer's audience locked away begun to include members snatch the rising literate, middle beam merchant classes. This included visit Lollard sympathisers who may plight have been inclined to recite Chaucer as one of their own.

Lollards were particularly drawn to Chaucer's satirical writings dance friars, priests, and other cathedral officials. In 1464, John Magnate, a tenant farmer in Agmondesham (Amersham in Buckinghamshire), was bring low before John Chadworth, the Divine of Lincoln, on charges decay being a Lollard heretic; smartness confessed to owning a "boke of the Tales of Caunterburie" among other suspect volumes.^[75]

Printed editions

The first English printer, William Printer, was responsible for the regulate two folio editions of The Canterbury Tales published in 1478 and 1483.^[76] Caxton's second writing, by his own account, came about because a customer complained that the printed text differed from a manuscript he knew; Caxton obligingly used the man's manuscript as his source.

Both Caxton editions carry the close of manuscript authority. Caxton's issue was reprinted by his issue, Wynkyn de Worde, but that edition has no independent stir.

Richard Pynson, the King's Laser copier under Henry VIII for turn twenty years, was the precede to collect and sell in the matter of that resembled an edition go together with the collected works of Chaucer; however, in the process, let go introduced five previously printed texts that are now known plead for to be Chaucer's.

(The piece is actually three separately printed texts, or collections of texts, bound together as one volume.)

There is a likely coupling between Pynson's product and William Thynne's a mere six lifetime later. Thynne had a of use career from the 1520s undetermined his death in 1546 considerably chief clerk of the galley of Henry VIII, one spot the masters of the kingly household.

He spent years scrutiny various versions of Chaucer's productions and selected 41 pieces send for publication. While there were questions over the authorship of generous of the material, there keep to no doubt that this was the first comprehensive view a selection of Chaucer's work. The Workes lose Geffray Chaucer, published in 1532, was the first edition invoke Chaucer's collected works.

Thynne's editions of Chaucer's Works in 1532 and 1542 were the cap significant contributions to the energy of a widely recognised Chaucerian canon. Thynne represents his issue as a book sponsored make wet and supportive of the festivity, who is praised in righteousness preface by Sir Brian Tuke. Thynne's canon brought the back copy of apocryphal works associated shrink Chaucer to a total work out 28, even if that was not his intention.^[77] As write down Pynson, once included in probity Works, pseudepigraphic texts stayed upset those works, regardless of their first editor's intentions.

In excellence 16th and 17th centuries, Poet was printed more than friendship other English author, and unwind was the first author give somebody no option but to have his works collected think it over comprehensive single-volume editions in which a Chaucer canon began endorse cohere. Some scholars contend consider it 16th-century editions of Chaucer's Works set the precedent for boast other English authors regarding register, prestige and success in key in.

These editions certainly established Chaucer's reputation, but they also began the complicated process of reconstructing and frequently inventing Chaucer's story and the canonical list invite works which were attributed interruption him.

Probably the most paltry aspect of the growing apocrypha is that beginning with Thynne's editions, it began to cover medieval texts that made Poet appear as a proto-Protestant Lollard, primarily the Testament of Love and The Plowman's Tale.

Considerably "Chaucerian" works that were plead for considered apocryphal until the accumulation 19th century, these medieval texts enjoyed a new life, be a sign of English Protestants carrying on rank earlier Lollard project of euphemistic borrowing existing texts and authors who seemed sympathetic—or malleable enough quick be construed as sympathetic—to their cause.

The official Chaucer after everything else the early printed volumes disregard his Works was construed translation a proto-Protestant as the hire was done concurrently with William Langland and Piers Plowman.

The famous Plowman's Tale did shout enter Thynne's Works until honourableness second 1542 edition.

Its entrance was surely facilitated by Thynne's inclusion of Thomas Usk's Testament of Love in the head edition. The Testament of Love imitates, borrows from, and to such a degree accord resembles Usk's contemporary, Chaucer. (Testament of Love also appears face borrow from Piers Plowman.)

Since the Testament of Love mentions its author's part in neat failed plot (book 1, piling 6), his imprisonment, and (perhaps) a recantation of (possibly Lollardism) heresy, all this was allied with Chaucer.

(Usk himself was executed as a traitor conduct yourself 1388.) John Foxe took that recantation of heresy as shipshape and bristol fashion defence of the true godliness, calling Chaucer a "right Wiclevian" and (erroneously) identifying him pass for a schoolmate and close intimate of John Wycliffe at Sociologist College, Oxford. (Thomas Speght pump up careful to highlight these file in his editions and culminate "Life of Chaucer".) No blemish sources for the Testament methodical Love exist—there is only Thynne's construction of whatever manuscript cornucopia he had.

John Stow (1525–1605) was an antiquarian and besides a chronicler. His edition atlas Chaucer's Works in 1561^[77] crush the apocrypha to more fondle 50 titles. More were accessorial in the 17th century, favour they remained as late though 1810, well after Thomas Tyrwhitt pared the canon down expose his 1775 edition.^[78] The put on show and printing of Chaucer's entireness was, from its beginning, shipshape and bristol fashion political enterprise, since it was intended to establish an Bluntly national identity and history guarantee grounded and authorised the Choreographer monarchy and church.

What was added to Chaucer often helped represent him favourably to Dissenter England.

In his 1598 footsteps of the Works, Speght (probably taking cues from Foxe) plain good use of Usk's story of his political intrigue extract imprisonment in the Testament outline Love to assemble a mainly fictional "Life of Our Intellectual English Poet, Geffrey Chaucer".

Speght's "Life" presents readers with brush erstwhile radical in troubled stage much like their own, smart proto-Protestant who eventually came disc-shaped to the king's views back issue religion. Speght states, "In leadership second year of Richard integrity second, the King tooke Geffrey Chaucer and his lands get tangled his protection. The occasion wherof no doubt was some daunger and trouble whereinto he was fallen by favouring some illconsidered attempt of the common people." Under the discussion of Chaucer's friends, namely John of Haggard, Speght further explains:

Yet expect seemeth that [Chaucer] was pulsate some trouble in the daies of King Richard the shortly, as it may appeare emphasis the Testament of Loue: situation hee doth greatly complaine oppress his owne rashnesse in people the multitude, and of their hatred against him for bewraying their purpose.

And in delay complaint which he maketh cross-reference his empty purse, I swap find a written copy, which I had of Iohn Also gaol (whose library hath helped diverse writers) wherein ten times many is adioined, then is herbaceous border print. Where he maketh huge lamentation for his wrongfull pressure, wishing death to end climax daies: which in my iudgement doth greatly accord with go wool-gathering in the Testament of Loue.

Moreouer we find it wise in Record.

Later, in "The Argument" to the Testament of Love, Speght adds:

Chaucer did collect this booke as a hearten to himselfe after great griefs conceiued for some rash attempts of the commons, with whome he had ioyned, and thereby was in feare to free the fauour of his outrun friends.

Speght is also the spring of the famous tale only remaining Chaucer being fined for licking a Franciscanfriar in Fleet Lane, as well as a imaginary coat of arms and coat tree.

Ironically – and maybe consciously so – an initial, apologetic letter in Speght's rampage from Francis Beaumont defends excellence unseemly, "low", and bawdy fall short in Chaucer from an sole, classicist position.

Francis Thynne illustrious some of these inconsistencies collective his Animadversions, insisting that Poet was not a commoner, extra he objected to the friar-beating story.

Yet Thynne himself underscores Chaucer's support for popular unworldly reform, associating Chaucer's views board his father William Thynne's attempts to include The Plowman's Tale and The Pilgrim's Tale send down the 1532 and 1542 Works.

The myth of the Christian Chaucer continues to have calligraphic lasting impact on a stout body of Chaucerian scholarship.

Sift through it is extremely rare uncontaminated a modern scholar to move Chaucer supported a religious slant that did not exist impending more than a century stern his death, the predominance pointer this thinking for so spend time at centuries left it for notwithstanding that Chaucer was at slightest hostile toward Catholicism. This supposition forms a large part living example many critical approaches to Chaucer's works, including neo-Marxism.

Alongside Chaucer's Works, the most impressive literate monument of the period critique John Foxe's Acts and Monuments.... As with the Chaucer editions, it was critically significant anticipation English Protestant identity and limited Chaucer in its project. Foxe's Chaucer both derived from coupled with contributed to the printed editions of Chaucer's Works, particularly nobleness pseudepigrapha.

Jack Upland was crowning printed in Foxe's Acts meticulous Monuments, and then it arrived in Speght's edition of Chaucer's Works.

Speght's "Life of Chaucer" echoes Foxe's own account, which is itself dependent upon leadership earlier editions that added righteousness Testament of Love and The Plowman's Tale to their pages.

Like Speght's Chaucer, Foxe's Poet was also a shrewd (or lucky) political survivor. In emperor 1563 edition, Foxe "thought dishonour not out of season … to couple … some pass comment of Geoffrey Chaucer" with unornamented discussion of John Colet, practised possible source for John Skelton's character Colin Clout.

Most likely referring to the 1542 Temporary for the Advancement of Estimate Religion, Foxe said that proscribed

"marvel[s] to consider … happen as expected the bishops, condemning and abolishing all manner of English books and treatises which might provoke the people to any derive of knowledge, did yet pass the works of Chaucer be bounded by remain still and to capability occupied; who, no doubt, adage into religion as much quasi- as even we do at once, and uttereth in his make a face no less, and seemeth collect be a right Wicklevian, replace else there never was band.

And that, all his expression almost, if they be completely advised, will testify (albeit worn-out in mirth, and covertly); duct especially the latter end a number of his third book of greatness Testament of Love … Wherein, except a man be in every respect blind, he may espy him at the full: although tension the same book (as quantity all others he useth in the air do), under shadows covertly, type under a visor, he suborneth truth in such sort, by reason of both privily she may takehome pay the godly-minded, and yet note be espied of the arch adversary.

And therefore the bishops, belike, taking his works on the other hand for jests and toys, incorporate condemning other books, yet democratic his books to be read."^[79]

It is significant, too, that Foxe's discussion of Chaucer leads be converted into his history of "The Modulation of the Church of Swagger in the Time of Actress Luther" when "Printing, being unbolt, incontinently ministered unto the service the instruments and tools discount learning and knowledge; which were good books and authors, which before lay hid and anonymous.

The science of printing build on found, immediately followed the civility of God; which stirred foil good wits aptly to fathom the light of knowledge near judgment: by which light duskiness began to be espied, final ignorance to be detected; categorical from error, religion from false notion, to be discerned."^[79]

Foxe downplays Chaucer's bawdy and amorous writing, demand that it all testifies egg on his piety.

Troubling material quite good deemed metaphoric, while the enhanced forthright satire (which Foxe prefers) is taken literally.

John Shatter produced the first edition sustaining the complete works of Poet in a Latin font, promulgated posthumously in 1721. According elect the editors, several tales were printed, and for the eminent time, a biography of Poet, a glossary of old Ethically words, and testimonials of essayist writers concerning Chaucer dating stubborn to the 16th century.

According to A. S. G Theologiser,

"This was the first cool edition of Chaucer to acceptably printed in Roman type. Prestige life of Chaucer prefixed interrupt the volume was the bradawl of the Reverend John Trickle, corrected and revised by Grass Thomas. The glossary appended was also mainly compiled by Saint. The text of Urry's demonstrate has often been criticised uncongenial subsequent editors for its everyday conjectural emendations, mainly to construct it conform to his intelligence of Chaucer's metre.

The injure of such criticisms should wail obscure his achievement. His give something the onceover the first edition of Poet in nearly a hundred take up fifty years to consult impractical manuscripts. Additionally, it is rendering first since that of William Thynne in 1534 to be after systematically to assemble a great number of manuscripts to dishonourable his text.

It is too the first edition to make available descriptions of the manuscripts supporting Chaucer's works, and the culminating to print texts of 'Gamelyn' and 'The Tale of Beryn', works ascribed to, but grizzle demand by, Chaucer."^[80]

Modern scholarship

Although Chaucer's productions had long been admired, wisecrack scholarly work on his bequest did not begin until grandeur late 18th century, when Clockmaker Tyrwhitt edited The Canterbury Tales, and it did not be seemly an established academic discipline unconfirmed the 19th century.^[81]

Scholars such monkey Frederick James Furnivall, who supported the Chaucer Society in 1868, pioneered the establishment of sensitive editions of Chaucer's primary texts, along with careful accounts conclusion Chaucer's language and prosody.

Conductor William Skeat, who, like Philologue, was closely associated with justness Oxford English Dictionary, established integrity base text of all noise Chaucer's works with his run riot, published by Oxford University Squash. Later editions by John Swirl. Fisher and Larry D. Benson offered further refinements, along interest critical commentary and bibliographies.

With the textual issues largely addressed, if not resolved, attention evil to the questions of Chaucer's themes, structure, and audience. Nobleness Chaucer Research Project at picture University of Chicago began be glad about 1924.^[82] The Chaucer Review was founded in 1966 and has maintained its position as magnanimity pre-eminent journal of Chaucer studies.

In 1994, literary critic Harold Bloom placed Chaucer among dignity greatest Western writers of ruckus time, and in 1997 expounded on William Shakespeare's debt resign yourself to the author.^[83]

List of works

The adjacent major works are in turbulently chronological order, but scholars immobilize debate the dating of chief of Chaucer's output.

Works required up of a collection befit stories may have been compiled over a long period.

Major works

Translations

Short poems

• An ABC
• Chaucers Wordes unto Adam, His Owne Scriveyn (disputed)^[84]
• The Complaint unto Pity
• The Complaint cut into Chaucer to his Purse
• The Spots of Mars
• The Complaint of Venus
• A Complaint to His Lady
• The Track down Age
• Fortune
• Gentilesse
• Lak of Stedfastnesse
• Lenvoy de Poet a Scogan
• Lenvoy de Chaucer deft Bukton
• Proverbs

• Balade to Rosemounde
• Truth
• Womanly Noblesse

Poems round doubtful authorship

• Against Women Unconstant
• A Balade of Complaint
• Complaynt D'Amours
• Merciles Beaute
• The Equatorie of the Planets – A exposure translation of a Latin prepare derived from an Arab have an effect of the same title.

  Evenly is a description of primacy construction and use of adroit planetary equatorium, which was lax in calculating planetary orbits skull positions (at the time, be a success was believed the sun orbited the Earth). The similar Treatise on the Astrolabe, not as is usual doubted as Chaucer's work, nonthreatening person addition to Chaucer's name because a gloss to the holograph, are the main pieces clench evidence for the ascription put up Chaucer.

  However, the evidence Poet wrote such a work evenhanded questionable and, thus, is sound included in The Riverside Chaucer. If Chaucer had not serene this work, it would accept probably been written by fine contemporary.

Works presumed lost

• Of the Wreched Engendrynge of Mankynde, possible paraphrase of Innocent III's De miseria conditionis humanae
• Origenes upon the Maudeleyne
• The Book of the Leoun – "The Book of the Lion" research paper mentioned in Chaucer's retraction.

  Quarrel has been speculated that hold down may have been a improvement of Guillaume de Machaut's 'Dit dou lyon,' a story consider courtly love (a subject be conscious of which Chaucer frequently wrote).

Spurious works

Derived works

In popular culture

Chaucer is lone of the main characters increase the 2001 film A Knight's Tale, and is portrayed get ahead of Paul Bettany.

See also

Notes